Ownership and Control as Important Aspect of the Media Essay Example for Free

Ownership and Control as Important Aspect of the Media Essay Discuss two contrasting theories and relevant studies to explain the extent to which ownership and control is an important aspect of the media. The term mass media is essentially information which is targeted at a large audience. The Mass media is a global industry which has played a major role in shaping society over the 20th century. As technology has developed and created the opportunity to communicate with huge numbers of people, the mass media has developed and with it the media’s impact on society. Over the last fifty years the media has changed its shape yet again to fit in with our increasingly technological society; various forms of new media have appeared: smartphones, laptops, internet and ipods. The general aim of these new mediums is to allow greater flexibility to the user and access media while mobile, also they are not physical forms of media but electronic, which has its own advantages and disadvantages. There have also been major changes in ownership and control of the media; it has become both increasingly concentrated and transnational. An example would be the controversial Mr. Murdoch. His News International group owns over one third of newspapers in Britain, Two other companies, Mirror Group Newspapers and United Newspapers own another 40 per cent between them. This clearly shows that the bulk of the power is held by only a few individuals, this creates very serious political and economical implications. Murdoch’s paper has been partially responsible for getting each government elected over the past fifty years; every party he has supported over the years has won. Two main sociological theories are used to explain ownership and control of the mass media: Pluralist theory and Marxist theory. Each have there own interpretations of the issues and subsequent strengths and weaknesses which I shall now discuss. Pluralist theory is all about power in society. They believe that no one group or elite dominates society. It is essentially a functionalist view. Instead Pluralists believe that there is a range of interest groups who share power. Pluralists argue that the mass media reflect such a range of interests. They argue that the mass media simply reflect what we, the public, want. If it is biased it is because that is the view people want to hear, it simply reflects the publics opinion rather than trying to make people think a particular way. For example the British press is generally conservative; Pluralists argue this is because British society is generally conservative. Pluralists would also say that the mass media provides a wide and diverse choice for the consumer. Therefore there is no single dominant ideology but a genuine choice for the consumer. Minority views are expressed just the same as the dominant views. Because of this Pluralists argue that the mass media has little or no influence on the views of the masses. At most it simply reinforces what people already believe. Pluralism recognizes the ability of the individuals to make up there own mind about key issues. For example, in the general elections of 1997 and 2001 viweing figures dropped sharply during the campaign, suggesting most people had decided who to support before the campaign even started. Furthermore in the 1992 elections the swing to the conservatives was just as great from the neutral Independent as is was from those who read pro-conservative tabloids. Even readers of The Sun, which was strongly against a conservative government, indicated in election polls that they had voted conservative. The Pluralist perspective is criticized for ignoring clear evidence of bias, mainly political bias and the influence it can have on society. For example, the political party supported by Rupert Murdoch’s papers has won every election since 1979. When he decided to switch from Labour to Conservative in 1997, there was a 15 per cent swing to Labour amongst readers of The Sun. This clear evidence of bias due to the views of a single man is ignored by the Pluralist perspective. The impact of the mass media is obviously key to election campaigns and has a massive impact on society as a whole. Arguably Rupert Murdoch alone has been responsible, in part, for getting each government elected since 1979. This clearly is very undemocratic and bad for the country. The Marxist conflict theory views the mass media as a means of not only influencing people, but also controlling them. It is used as a tool by the ruling class to maintain control and power through transmitting a conformist conservative view of the world. Sociologist have created two general views within Marxism, Manipulative Marxism – which places emphasis on the mass media as a form of economic capitalism and Hegemonic Marxism – which emphasises the mass media as a means whereby the ruling class project a culture which reflects their own norms and values, to the exclusion of all others. The concentration of ownership increases such control. Marxists also argue that the ruling class use the media as a filter through which information is passed to the mass of the population. In emphasizing the acceptance of the status quo, the media resists change and therefore works against the interests of the working class. The media therefore will project capitalism positively, creating a false class consciousness to the proletariat to prevent them realizing their exploitation and thus overthrow capitalism. Because of the established media moguls such as Rupert Murdoch it is difficult for small firms and individuals to gain much credit and fame. The Marxist perspective is seen as strong in analyzing the mass media from a conflict perspective. In doing so it helps to explain the mass media as a source of inequality within capitalist society. It also helps to explain the perceived bias within the media. For Marxists this is particularly important in a political and economical context. Marxism identifies and analyses political bias within the media, for example the consumerism culture that the newspapers promote. However, the Marxist theory is criticized for underestimating the ability of individuals to absorb information and make up there own minds about what they agree with or disagree with. Critics argue that people are not like robots who passively accept what they are told, rather they critically judge a variety of issues and make up there own mind using what they have been told and their own individual experience with the issue. James Curran, in Mass Media and Democracy: A reppraisal (1991), argues that the growth of commercial radio and television re-affirms the view that there is a widespread choice with a core public sector combined with an expanding private sector. Thus, the impact of ownership and control is negligible given the real and diverse choice that exists. Currans study supports the Pluralist perspective. Studies such as Curran’s are strong in recognizing the changing nature of British industry and how it applies to the mass media. Such conclusions are supported by the reality of the mass media that, despite a concentration of ownership, is run by a diverse range of individuals from different social backgrounds, through joint stock companies. However, this tends to ignore the fact that the largest proportion of shares in any public liability company is owned by either wealthy individuals or large institutional shareholders. From a Marxist perspective the ruling class is seen as an agent of ideological control in modern society, used by the ruling class to establish and impose its values on the working class. This is a view taking by Miliband in The State in Capitalist Society (1973). Miliband argues that the mass media is an agent of capitalist control, rejecting the pluralist theory that there is genuine choice.

The Benefits of Animal Cloning :: Cloning Argumentative Persuasive Argument

The Benefits of Animal Cloning Put yourself into the body of someone who is need of a vital organ. You are on a waiting list, but who knows when you will receive this precious organ. The doctor says the chances of receiving an organ donor are slim because of your rare genetic make-up. The thought of praying for another human to die, just so you can live, seems selfish, but today, the only way to receive an organ is from the death, or the chance of death, of another human being. Even then, the donor may not match. Now imagine it is the year 2007, and you are in dire need of a heart. The doctors do several tests to determine your genetic make-up, so they can find the right animal to match your needs. After replacing your heart with a pig heart, you recover and go on with everyday life. No one had to die, and you received your heart. With today's technology, this, and more human benefits, will be made possible with animal cloning. The process of cloning is very complicated and involves making a genetically identical organism through non-sexual means (Olson). There are different ways to produce a clone, but one of the most common procedures is carried out by cell nuclear replacement. This procedure is often used because it is easier to target specific genes, so the DNA strands can be altered (Olson). In this procedure, the donor egg and a somatic cell from the animal are used to be cloned. The nucleus, which contains the genetic material, is removed from the donor egg and replaced with the nucleus from the cell of the animal to be cloned. "This creates a cloned embryo, which is then stimulated to begin dividing" (Centre). Animal cloning controversies rose after 1997 when Ian Wilmut cloned the first mammal (sheep), named Dolly, from an adult cell (Wilmut, 21). Since the first cloned mammal, scientists have worked to find a practical application for cloning that will produce advances for human diseases. In some inherited disorders, such as hemophilia, cystic fibrosis and emphysema, the only way to treat such patients is through therapeutic proteins, which are obtained through the milk of an animal (Straight). These animals carry a certain protein that is secreted in their milk or blood, which is then harvested and purified for use (Nagal). Drugs made from these proteins are extremely scarce and expensive.

Hostel or home Essay

Most Young people think about living away from home as the best part in their lives because they will have more freedom and that can be really exciting for them; however, they do not realize that living at home has more benefits compared to living away from home. The best thing about living away from home is that you have more freedom. You can set your own rules, stay up late, invite friends to your place and have parties whenever you want; hence, a parent- free environment is awesome, but you need to be mature enough to handle it. A drawback is that you may feel homesick. You may miss the moments that you used to share with your family, or even those familiar things such as your neighborhood, your bedroom, your pet and so on. A study in Neuropsychiatry states that people get higher mental health scores if they lived in their family home. Another disadvantage is that you will have to pay a rent, pay the bills, and buy your own food which will definitely affect you in the financial aspect. Finally, another aspect is convenience. You will not have many of the things that you used to have at home. You will have less free time for other activities because you will spend more time doing housework, balancing the budget and organizing things by yourself. On the other hand, living at home can be frustrating because you always have to obey rules; Your parents will control you most of the time, but this can be a benefit because it can prevent you from being lazy and wasting time doing things that are unproductive. The emotional aspect is also a plus because you would definitely feel better at home. There is nothing like family. They can support you when you need them and cheer you up. Moreover, you can save a lot of money because you do not have to pay a rent neither do you have to buy your own food because your parents will do that for free or sometimes charge you just a low rate. Another point in favor is convenience. You have almost everything you need at home; furthermore, your mother usually does all the housework, at least of the common areas, and organizes everything; consequently you will have more free time for studying or just going out with your friends and having fun.

An Argument Against High Salaries in Major League...

An Argument Against High Salaries in Major League Baseball Twenty-five million dollars made per year. Over one hundred fifty-four thousand dollars made per game. Over forty-seven thousand dollars earned per at bat. Sounds a little ridiculous, does it not? That is what current Texas Ranger shortstop Alex Rodriguez earns to play the game of baseball (azcentral.com). Baseball is a game that children have been playing in schoolyards and fields for the past one hundred years. It may not be a game anymore. On the Major League level it has become a business. This is where the problem starts. There are twenty-five players who make more than ten million dollars per year, a price that, ten years ago, only two†¦show more content†¦The statistics from 1975 show that the average salary was just over $44,000, quite comparable to a successful business CEO at the time, while the minimum earnings were $16,000, an amount that equated to $8.00 per hour had they been working a typical job. Players making that much at the time were more than likely to hold an off-season job to supplement their income. Lastly, the highest-paid player was Dick Allen of the Philadelphia Phillies making $200,000 per year, quite outstanding at the time (Stark). Jayson Stark, ESPN columnist, presents an interesting argument of the downfall of baseball after free agency. He uses sarcasm and slight humor to introduce the reader to the topic of free agency and uses the argument style of comparison and contrast to predict what today might have held had there been no free agency. But within his column, player agent Tom Reich states, â€Å"The people who criticize free agency to easily today don’t realize how bad baseball was twenty-five years ago† (Stark). It is Stark who realizes that the talent of the game has improved, but the overall passion in each player may have decreased. In a recent poll, football has been voted by the fans to be the new pastime of America. This may be a result of a few problems that are present in baseball, mainly salaries and the price they pay on the fans, but also the fact that games are starting later and later each year in order toShow MoreRelatedJackie Robinson And Curt Flood1237 Words   |  5 Pagesvariety of sports in this country, one stands out as the most â€Å"American.† Baseball has long been regarded as America’s national pastime and it remains the single sport which mirrors society and pushes it forward more than any other. Football and basketball have risen to great prominence within the United States, but they cannot match baseball for its history, its diversity, and its growth with the nation from coast to coast. Baseball also offers heroism and an everyday working class style that are notRead MoreEssay on The History of Baseball2347 Words   |  10 PagesThe History of Baseball Baseball in America is about as common as alcohol in college , it is everywhere and participated by everyone. Children and adults play baseball in small towns and large cities and professionals play it throughout the country. The game of baseball is Americas pastime and it popularity is enormous. The beginning of the 20th century between the 1930s sparked the emergenceRead MoreEssay on Pro Salary Cap2536 Words   |  11 PagesPro Salary Cap According to Dan Oleary, â€Å"Since baseball is the only major sport without a salary cap, and with the way baseball’s big-spending teams throw around money, having a different winner each year seems to defy logic† (OLeary). A salary cap is issued in every professional sport’s franchise, excluding Major League Baseball. With no salary cap, one club can dominate it’s competition on money alone. The New York Yankees spend the most money on it’s players each year (Goldman). It is no coincidenceRead MoreBring Instant Replay to Major League Baseball Essay991 Words   |  4 PagesMajor League Baseball (MLB) has been losing fans for several years. The average attendance for a MLB game has been decreasing for a number of years. If Major League Baseball would like to compete with popularity of professional sports such as Professional football (NFL) and Professional basketball (NBA), they need to embrace some of technologies that have made those sports s o successful in recent years. Right now, MLB has a replay system used for determining home runs that are either fair or foulRead MoreThere Has Always Been A Stereotype That Says That Men Are2155 Words   |  9 Pageslogic is a theory called the feminist critical theoretical perspective. As stated in Social Issues in Sport by Ronald B. Woods the definition for the Feminist theory is, â€Å" Social theory investigating the effects of gender in society.†(Woods 487). The major problems that come from these issues is the fact that people think that there are sports only for females and sports only for males. More problems that come from these issue are that female professional athletes don’t think they are getting paid enoughRead MoreThe Debate Over CEO Compensation1349 Words   |  6 PagesCEO position. With CEO positions being opened up all the time that means there is a high demand for such positions, but they must be filled with highly trained professionals with year s of experience, something a lot of people do not have to the quality of work needed. So if there is a high demand and a low supply it would mean that the compensation for these high position employment opportunities must equally be high to entice people for the position. A way to counteract the Principal Agent problemRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Banned?1289 Words   |  6 Pages(Edelman 2014). Now compare those revenues to a professional league, and the numbers are staggering. â€Å"This year revenues for the National Football League will be somewhere just north of $9 billion.† (Burke, 2013). Professional athletes have been scrutinized for making large amounts of salary, yet their industries are making even less than the National Collegiate Athletic Association. How can anyone condone student athletes’ deprivation of salary after researching those statistics? Statistics have beenRead MoreEssay Public Subsidies for Sports Facilities3522 Words   |  15 Pagesor are under way in Baltimore, Charlotte, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Milwaukee, Nashville, San Francisco, St. Louis, Seattle, Tampa, and Washington, D.C., and are in the planning stages in Boston, Dallas, Minneapolis, New York, and Pittsburgh. Major stadium renovations have been undertaken in Jacksonville and Oakland. Industry experts estimate that more than $7 billion will be spent on new facilities for professional sports teams before 2006. Most of this $7 billion will come from public sourcesRead MoreBlack Sox Scandal and Its Effect on America2032 Words   |  9 PagesScandals in Baseball and Its Effect on America Baseball has always been considered as American as apple pie. If that is true than cheating should be just as American. Ever since the creation of America’s favorite pastime, baseball, cheating has been a major part of the game. Each era of baseball has showed more complex ways of cheating the game. Although, cheating in baseball has been around since the introduction of the game, only few scandals have really made history. Some of the most famousRead MoreThe World s Best League Of Legends1737 Words   |  7 Pagesprofessional video game player, or Cyber Athlete. Le strolls to his high-powered computer, provided to him by a generous sponsor, and begins to play League of Legends. League of Legends is an online multiplayer game that currently has thirty-six million online players. Danny Le earns six figures a year, as do his four roommates/teammates, because they are currently viewed by the gaming community as one of the world’s best League of Legends teams. Team Di gnitas. Video games are no longer a fad or

Flammable, Inflammable, Nonflammable Which Are Right

The adjectives flammable and inflammable mean exactly the same thing: easily set on fire and capable of burning quickly. Metaphorically speaking, inflammable also can mean easily angered or excited. Of the two terms, the older word for something capable of burning is inflammable, but early in the 20th century the word flammable was coined as a synonym for inflammable. The adjective nonflammable means not easily set on fire. How to Use Inflammable Despite beginning with in-, inflammable does mean burnable, and it has since at least 1605, according to the Oxford English Dictionary The prefix in- can make a word negative, as in incapable, inflexible, and incompetent, but it also can add emphasis, as in invaluable, inflame, and intense. The prefix also can mean within, as in incoming, inbreeding, and infighting. The in- of inflammable, called an intensive or an intensifier, is of the emphatic type. But people came to believe that the prefix was confusing, which could be dangerous in emergency signage, so inflammable is falling out of use. How to Use Flammable Flammable, the new kid on the block, didnt appear in print until more than 300 years later. In the 1920s, the National Fire Protection Association began using flammable instead of inflammable, which it thought was confusing because of the negative-sounding beginning of the word. Insurance companies and fire-safety advocates soon agreed. In 1959, the British Standards Institution announced that, to avoid ambiguity, its policy was to encourage use of the terms flammable and nonflammable instead of inflammable and nonflammable. So which word should a careful writer use? According to Origins of the Specious: Myths and Misconceptions of the English Language, by Patricia T. OConner and Stewart Kellerman: History may be on the side of inflammable, but common sense wins here. If you want to be sure youre understood—say, the next time you see a smoker about to light up near a gas pump—go with flammable. But inflammable hasnt disappeared. Merriam-Websters Dictionary of English Usage reports that, though both forms still are used, flammable seems to be less common in British English than in American English and inflammable is more common. In figurative uses, inflammable still serves a purpose. How to Use Nonflammable For a time, a substance that couldnt easily catch fire was referred to as being noninflammable. Nonflammable began to replace that term as flammable become more prominent for the sake of clarity. So nonflammable is the word of choice for careful writers, especially those working in a public safety capacity. Examples Here are some sample sentences illustrating the differences among the three words, incorporating the demise of the word inflammable except for figurative purposes: Flammable or combustible liquids should not be stored in stairways or in areas used for exits. Here flammable means the same thing as combustible.The Douglas fir and the giant sequoia of western North America have developed thick, nonflammable bark to insulate the living tissue from the heat of the flames. In this example nonflammable means resistant to burning.Since Bill was fired, he has become inflammable about workers rights and loses control in arguments on the topic. In this case, inflammable doesnt mean burnable; it means easily excited or angered. To most experts, its the only remaining appropriate use for inflammable. How to Remember the Difference Flammable should now be the obvious choice for burnable. The first syllable looks like flame, and thats what it means: Capable of going up in flames. One way to remember to use it instead of inflammable is that its a simpler word, and simpler often is best. Inflammable isnt incorrect, but its imprecise, and that could be dangerous. Nonflammable also should be the obvious choice: non (not) plus flammable, meaning it wont burn. Sources Flammable vs. Inflammable. https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/flammable-or-inflammable.OConner, Patricia T., and Kellerman, Stewart. Origins of the Specious: Myths and Misconceptions of the English Language. Random House, 2010.

Slavery Is The Act Of Owning Slaves - 810 Words

First off what is slavery? Slavery is the act of owning slaves. What is a slave? A slave is the property of another and is forced into free labor. A slave can be sold, bought or traded between people, specifically whites. They were humans who were emotionally and physically abused. Slavery was a form of beastiality that continued in the United States for 245 years before it was abolished. Slavery being abolished is credited to many people, such as Quakers, militant white reforms, and free African Americans. Most were part of antislavery groups. There was a wide variety of antislavery organizations that people took apart in, such as the American Colonization Society, Antislavery Society, etc., they were all a part of the abolitionist†¦show more content†¦He wanted his readers to learn the terror of slavery couldn’t go on any longer, Douglass’s narrative contained many reasons why slavery should be abolished by using Douglass’s life as a prime example. Douglass was born a slave. His mother was also a slave, while his father was her master. His birth itself is an example of how many African American woman were raped by their master. Throughout the narrative, Douglass gives examples of brutality in American slavery that happen to him and what he witnessed. Such as, the beating of his Aunt that traumatized him. Douglass being able to put that into written words all began with his owners Hugh and Sophia Auld. The Auld family were first time slave owners, not knowing how to act anything but kind to people, Sophia treated young Douglass well. She started to teach him the ABCs, how to spell and read, until her husband demanded she stop. â€Å"He said if you teach that ni----- (speaking of myself) how to read, there would be no keeping him. It would forever unfit him to be a slave. He would at once become unmanageable, and of no good value to his master.† The words of Hugh Auld transformed his wife. Sophia stopped being kind to Douglass and turned into a cruel slave owner. Douglass argued how slavery turned people into monsters, using Sophia as an example. This important because this is when Douglass wasn’t so ignorant on the oppression of slavery. He was becoming wiser andShow MoreRelatedSlavery Is Not Legal Now939 Words   |  4 PagesSlavery Slavery, according to Merriam Webster means â€Å"the practice of owning slaves†. ïÆ'ŸïÆ'ŸïÆ'Ÿ This means owning people against their will and not paying them. Slavery has been around since 1916, when the first settlers of Jamestown brought with them their slaves. Slavery also has been a debate ever since the declaration of independence, when Thomas Jefferson tried to abolish slavery but North Carolina disagreed. Owning slaves back at the time was a sign of wealth and power. The slave trade important toRead MoreThe Narrative Of The Life Of Frederick Douglass1546 Words   |  7 PagesThe term slavery refers to â€Å"When a person (called master) has absolute power over another (called slave) including life and liberty†.As stated by duhaime.org, The new phenomenon or term, â€Å"slave mentality†, stems from the early existence of slavery and how slavery continues to affect the mindset of the new generation. According to the blog, The Last Civil Right, slave mentality is when â€Å"a person conditioned to quietly and without objection, accept harmful circumstances for themselves as the naturalRead MoreThe Known World by Edward Jones Essay1021 Words   |  5 Pagesoutlook on pre-Civil War slavery is portrayed in Edward Jones novel The Known World. Unlike many well-known novels that cover slavery, Jones chose to focus on the thoughts and emotions of both the slaves and slave-owners and how they interact with each other. Set in a wealthy Virginia county, the practice of owning slaves is common to the white man and the black man as well. The main focus of the story is Henry Townsend, a black former slave that was bought out of slavery by his father, who wasRead More History of The American Civil War Essay1540 Words   |  7 Pagesissue of slavery, which was spurred on by the secession of the southern states from the Union of a America. At the time slavery was one of the main issues in America that caused a disagreement between the north and south and these disagreements about humanity and slaves added to the tension that would finally lead to the out break of war. Slavery was almost totally abolished in the northern states after 1787 when the Constitution was drafted at the Philadelphia Convention and slavery was lookedRead MoreHistory : Existence Of Slavery Essay1596 Words   |  7 PagesExistence of Slavery in America One of the historic foundations that the United States was formed on was known as slavery. Slavery had such an immense impact on American history from the early sixteenth century to the nineteenth century. It has facilitated in shaping the modern world, in addition to slavery had a strong role in forming the United States Constitution as we know it today. Slavery refers to an individual who is owned by others and controlled by their owners. A slave was consideredRead MoreThe Segregation Of The United States1292 Words   |  6 Pagesinto two on the issue of slavery. It was a question of moral integrity and whether it should be allowed to continue. Racism permeated the institution of slavery. The color of a man’s skin did not keep him from fighting for freedom in the wars that took place in America, although it was a way white people sought to justify their mistreatment of them. Slaves were viewed as inferior beings by southern whites and as the abolition move ment gained momentum in the north, the slave owners began to see northernersRead MoreThe State Of Virginia By Thomas Jefferson1277 Words   |  6 PagesThomas Jefferson created two facades when it came to racism and slavery. Thomas Jefferson had a personal history with slavery and owning a plantation, but in certain instances he appeared to support equality like in his letter to Benjamin Banneker. Different texts like Notes on the State of Virginia by Thomas Jefferson with the related documents edited by David Waldstreicher, and Banneker and Jefferson Letter Exchange are examples of the hypocrisy committed by Jefferson. This connects to modern dayRead MoreThomas Jefferson s Influence On Modern Day Democracy1616 Words   |  7 PagesThomas Jefferson’s Influence on Modern Day Democracy and Racism Thomas Jefferson created two facades when it came to racism and slavery. Thomas Jefferson had a personal history with slavery and owning a plantation, but in certain instances he appeared to support equality like in his letter to Benjamin Banneker. Different texts like Notes on the State of Virginia by Thomas Jefferson with the related documents edited by David Waldstreicher, and Banneker and Jefferson Letter Exchange are examples ofRead MoreEssay on Frederick Douglass Rhetoric Analysis1236 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican Slave, in order to do just that- to establish the truth behind slavery and advocate for freedom. In his narrative, Douglass uses diction, structure, imagery, and other stylistic elements to persuade people of the evils that slavery inflicts on both sides of society. In order to reveal the truth behind slavery, Douglass demonstrates his point through his use of diction and structure. Through his diction, Douglass uses words to illustrate the barbarity and inhumanity of slavery. For instanceRead MoreEssay about Colonists Harsh Control Over Subservients Rights1124 Words   |  5 Pagesonly being provided for rich, white, land- owning males. Over the 17th and 18th centuries, events such as Bacons Rebellion, The Great Awakening, and The Stono Slave Revolt came to advocate for the rights of slaves, the biggest group in society, that had no rights. Slavery, while it existed in America, was a practice based on the chattel principle. Slaves were treated as human chattel to be traded

Injustice Anywhere Free Essays

string(36) " from cruel and unusual punishment\." Injustice Anywhere is a Threat to Justice Everywhere Sabeen Ijaz Ahmed B. B. I. We will write a custom essay sample on Injustice Anywhere or any similar topic only for you Order Now T. (Hons) 4th Year, GIFT University This article won the first prize (Rs. 25,000 cash) in the 2nd Annual All Pakistan Essay Writing Competition held by Quaid-e-Azam Law College. â€Å"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. † These powerful words were penned in a letter from a prison cell of Birmingham Jail in 1963, by one of America’s best known advocate of equal rights – Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. According to him, all humans are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly. Hence injustice with one individual of a society can affect the life of other individuals of the society. Before we make society understand the need of justice in this essay lets first talk about what justice really is. Justice is the ideal, morally correct state of things and persons. Justice is action in accordance with the requirements of some law. Whether these rules are grounded in human consensus or societal norms, they are supposed to ensure that all members of society receive fair treatment. Justice is distinguished from other ethical standards as required and as, overwhelmingly important: justice can be thought of as distinct from, and more important than, benevolence, charity, mercy, generosity or compassion. All of these things may be valuable, but they are supererogatory rather than required. We need to know more than this: we need to know what justice is, not merely what it is not, and several answers to that problem have been proposed.. Justice is linked, both etymologically and conceptually, to the idea of justification: having and giving decisive reasons for one’s beliefs and actions. So, attempts to understand justice are typically attempts to discover the justification – the source or basis – of justice, and therefore to account for (or disprove) its overwhelming importance. Justice becomes more essential for Islamic country like our due to the emphasis of Islamic teachings on justice. As it is said in Quran: â€Å"God enjoins justice and kindness, and giving to kinsfolk, and forbids indecency and abomination and wickedness. † [Surah Nahl; 16:90] Justice is perhaps the most important of the supreme values of Islam. In fact, it can be said that the main purpose of revelation and the tasks of Prophets (alayhum salam) has been to establish Justice. Thus, one of the early scholars of Islam has said that: â€Å"Where the signs of Justice appear and its face is shown in any way that is where the Law of God and His religion are found. † Justice is the first principle of social life. It can be shown to govern all relations in life: between ruler and ruled, rich and poor, husband and wife, parents and children. In all our dealings, we are required to stand firmly for justice even if it is against our own self and our kith and kin, for love too can lead to injustice. â€Å"O you who believe! Be firm in justice as witnesses for God, even in cases against yourselves, your parents or your kin† [Surah Nisa; 4: 135] â€Å"And if you give your word, you must be just, even though it be against your kin, and fulfill the covenant of God. For that is what He has commanded you that you may remember. † [Surah An’am; 6: 152] The fear of committing injustice may even prevent the doing of an act that is otherwise permissible. In fact one of the derived principles of the Shar’iah is that all permissible things are permissible provided that no damage or harm results to others from their practice and that in the event that such damage or harm is -suspected or confirmed, the permissible shall be prohibited to avert such damage or harm. Issues of justice arise in several different spheres and play a significant role in causing, perpetuating, and addressing conflict. Just institutions tend to instill a sense of stability, well-being, and satisfaction among society members, while perceived injustices can lead to dissatisfaction, rebellion, or revolution. Each of the different spheres expresses the principles of justice and fairness in its own way, resulting in different types and concepts of justice; distributive, procedural, retributive, and restorative. These types of justice have important implications for socio-economic, political, civil, and criminal justice at both the national and international level. Distributive justice, or economic justice, is concerned with giving all members of society a â€Å"fair share† of the benefits and resources available. Fair allocation of resources, or distributive justice, is crucial to the stability of a society and the well-being of its members. When issues of distributive justice are inadequately addressed and the item to be distributed is highly valued, intractable conflicts frequently result. Procedural justice is concerned with making and implementing decisions according to fair processes that ensure â€Å"fair treatment. † Rules must be impartially followed and consistently applied in order to generate an unbiased decision. If people believe procedures to be fair, they will be more likely to accept outcomes, even ones that they do not like. Implementing fair procedures is central to many dispute resolution procedures, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and adjudication. Retributive justice appeals to the notion of â€Å"just dessert† – the idea that . people deserve to be treated in the same way they treat others. It is a retroactive approach that justifies punishment as a response to past injustice or wrongdoing. The central idea is that the offender has gained unfair advantages through his or her behavior, and that punishment will set this imbalance straight. While it is difficult to give a complete and adequate definition of justice, most observers can recognize clear examples of serious injustice when they arise. Such injustice comes in various forms, wherever the norms of distributive justice, procedural justice, or human rights are violated. Political injustice involves the violation of individual liberties, including the denial of voting rights or due process, infringements on rights to freedom of speech or religion, and inadequate protection from cruel and unusual punishment. You read "Injustice Anywhere" in category "Papers" Such injustice often stems from unfair procedures, and involves political systems in which some but not others are allowed to have voice and representation in the processes and decisions that affect them. This sort of procedural injustice can contribute to serious social problems as well as political ones. If voting or litigation procedures, for example, are perceived to be unjust, any outcome they produce is liable to be unstable and produce conflict. In addition,; any procedures that are carried out in a biased manner are likely to contribute to problems of religious, ethnic, gender, or race discrimination. When the procedure in question has to do with employment or wages, such issues can lead to serious economic and social problems. The highly-publicized rape case of Mukhtaran Mai, also referred to as Mukhtar Mai or Mukhtaran Bibi, highlights the Pakistani government’s shortcomings in dealing with violence against women and its persecution of rape victims. In 2002, Mukhtaran was sentenced to be gang raped by a tribal council in the province of Punjab as punishment for her younger brother’s alleged affair with a woman from a powerful clan. After the initial trial, six men were sentenced to death for the gang rape, while eight others were acquitted. However, last June, the Punjab High Court overturned five of the convictions and reduced the sixth to a life sentence. Mukhtaran Mai received donations adding up to $160,000 from New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristoff’ s coverage of the case. Mukhtaran has used the money to open two schools in her village, a shelter for abused women and provide her village with an ambulance. When Mukhtaran was invited to the United States to talk about her case, the Pakistani government – fearing hat she would malign the country’s image abroad – denied her travel visa to the United States, and placed her under house arrest. Only -fallowing great international attention and pressure was the travel ban lifted. While Pakistan’s High Court suspended the acquittals of Mukhtaran’s rapists and will be re-examining the case, the government’s lassi tude in amending the Hudood Ordinances – which place insurmountable obstacles for women to safely and successfully obtain justice in their rape cases – foments an environment in which violence is perpetrated against women with virtual impunity. If women are unable to prove rape under the Hudood law, which requires four adult Muslim males to have witnessed the crime or the confession of the rapist himself, then the victims themselves may be tried for adultery or fornication. Mukhtaran is not the only victim of our political injustice. According to press reports cited by the Pakistan Human Rights Commission, a non-governmental organization, more than 10,000 women are raped every year in Pakistan, although the real figure is thought to be much higher. As in all countries, women are often reluctant to report rape, for social reasons as well as distrust of the judicial process. In Pakistan, there are additional legal barriers to pursuing a rape conviction. The rape law itself, one of the offenses of zina under the Hudood Ordinances, requires either the confession of the perpetrator or the eye-witness testimony of at least four Muslim adult male witnesses to the rape. If she is unable to prove rape, a woman who reports rape to the police is vulnerable to prosecution herself under the Hudood Ordinances for fornication if she is unmarried or adultery if she is married. In addition to these formidable legal barriers to the prosecution of rape, there have been several reports of police involvement in rapes and gang-rapes and of police protection of those accused of rape, particularly when they are from influential families. Women who have been raped are also at risk of â€Å"honor† killings, whereby a male relative kills them because they are thought to have dishonored the family’s name in the community by transgressing social norms, which is seen to include having been raped. It has been estimated that on average one thousand â€Å"honor† killings take place each year in Pakistan. Even the Pakistan Government’s National Commission on the Status of Women has recommended repeal of the Hudood Ordinances on the grounds that they are discriminatory towards women and not in accordance with Islamic injunctions. They are also contrary to the Convention on the Elimination of ; All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) , to which Pakistan is a party, and to the Constitution of Pakistan, which states at Article 25 that â€Å"(1) All citizens are equal before law and are entitled for equal protection of law. (2) There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex alone. Crimes of honor are a pre-Islamic practice deeply rooted in the tribal societies of the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) where Upper Dir is located, Balochistan province, as well as those of Sindh and Punjab where they are called â€Å"karo kari†. In these rigidly patriarchal communities, wives, daughters, sisters and mothers are killed for the least sexual indiscretion and upon the slightest suspicion of adultery. Murders in the name of honor fall under the purview of the customary ‘qisas and diyat’ law. Riddled with flaws, it makes prosecution extremely difficult. Activists have been urging the government to reform the law but a bill seeking to bolster secular law against honor killings, presented in parliament last year, was defeated as un-Islamic. â€Å"Drastic changes are needed,† Rakshanda Naz, resident director of Aurat Foundation told IPS. â€Å"The social mind-set, specially the attitude of the courts, needs to change. Often the courts adopt a lenient view towards an accused on the grounds of â€Å"grave and sudden provocation† which is nowhere in the law,† she added. Sections of the qisas and diyat law work to the advantage of the accused in the trial and appellate stages. Under section 309 of the law, an adult wall (legal heir) of a deceased could use his right of qisas (to forgive the accused). Similarly, under section 310, the offence of murder is made a compoundable offence and any heir of a deceased could forgive an accused by compounding his right of qisas after receiving compensation.. Since in most honor-related murders, either a husband or parents are the heirs of the slain woman and as the murder takes place in connivance with almost all the family members, they prefer to waive their right of qisas and pardon the accused. Each time, the judicial response has appeared to violate the basic principles of justice, activists observed. Uzma Mehboob, a women’s rights activist, said no FIR was registered in a recent case in a remote hamlet in NWFP’s Mardan district where a powerful landowner sprayed his daughter and driver, who had eloped together, with bullets. Economic injustice involves the state’s failure to provide individuals with basic necessities of life, such as access to adequate food and housing, and its maintenance of huge discrepancies in wealth. In the most extreme cases of misdistribution, some individuals suffer from poverty while the elite of that society live in relative luxury. Such injustice can stem from unfair hiring procedures, lack of available jobs and education, and insufficient health care. All of these conditions may lead individuals to believe that they have not received a â€Å"fair share† of the benefits and resources available in that society. Many scholars and activists note that in order to truly address injustice internationally, we must strive to understand its underlying causes. These causes have to do with underdevelopment, economic pressures, various social problems, and international conditions. Indeed, the roots of repression, discrimination, and other injustice stem from deeper and more complex political, social, and economic problems. It is only by understanding and ameliorating these root causes and strengthening civil society that we can truly protect human rights. Addressing political injustice is often a matter of developing institutions of fair governance, such as a responsible police force and judiciary. Legislative action and executive decision-making should likewise be held accountable. Such measures are sometimes a matter of reforming state institutions or revising state constitution. In cases where some groups are excluded from political participation, the state can remedy violations of political rights by promoting political inclusion and empowering subordinate groups. Public decision-making should respond to the will of the citizens, and members of the society should have the opportunity to participate in the formulation, execution, and monitoring of state policies. In other words, a culture of political involvement and public participation should be fostered. In addition, there are various social structural changes that might give groups more social, economic, and/or political power. This is often accomplished through the strengthening of the economy and civil society in conjunction with democratization efforts. In some cases countries require outside assistance for election monitoring, nation-building programs and the development of governmental infrastructure to make their political system more stable. Addressing systemic economic injustice is often a matter of economic reforms that give groups better access to jobs, health care, and education. In many cases, lack of access to basic services stems from enormous inequalities in resource distribution. Redistribution of benefits and resources can thus-‘ be an important component of social structural changes to remedy injustice. There are various institutional and economic development reforms that might be put in place to raise living standards and boost economic growth. In addition, by creating social and economic safety nets, states can eliminate tension and instability caused by unfair resource allocation. A central goal of responding to injustice is paving the way for future peace. Once conflict has ended and policies of oppression have been repealed, society members face the task of rebuilding their society. Many believe that measures aimed at restorative justice are well-suited for this task. Restorative Justice is concerned with healing wounds of victims and repairing harm done to interpersonal relationships and the community. It can play a crucial role in responding to severe human rights violations or cases of genocide. Huge advances are made when governments tell the truth about past atrocities carried out by the state. It is thought that true healing equires remembering the atrocities committed, repenting, and forgiving. War crimes inquiries and truth commissions can aid in the process of memory and truth telling and help to make public the extent to which victims have/suffered. One of the tragic examples of restorative injustice in Pakistan is of the incident of taking away Masihs children away from him. According to the law, all parents in Pakistan â⠂¬â€œ including Christian parents such as the Masihs – have the right to raise their children in their own faith. But the law isn’t always followed in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Particularly when it comes to Christians. The girls were taken Jan. 25 by the family’s landlady and her husband with police escorts. The couple contended that the children had converted to Islam and should no longer remain in a Christian home. The Masihs maintain that their daughters are still Christians, no matter what anyone says, and that even if they did convert to Islam, they should stay with their parents. But 14-year-old Nadia, 11-year-old Nyla and 9-year-old Nabila are gone, and it’s unclear whether they’ll ever be allowed to return home. The city magistrate overseeing the case admits he decided against the Christians not on the basis of law but on public sentiment and a concern that he could have a religious riot on his hands. â€Å"Legally speaking, they should have been given to their parents,† says Kamran? Abdullah Siddiqi, leaning back in a cushioned chair in his office, where two armed policeman sit against a wall. But Siddiqi says if he did that, â€Å"Some crazy person would come and say these are the children of Islam. They’d say we’re going to chop you. We’re going to shoot you. We’re going to – what did the KKK used to say in America? – lynch you. † Article 36 of Pakistan’s Constitution promises to safeguard the rights and interests of religious minorities. But human rights organizations say that’s not happening. The U. S. State Department agrees, citing a government-fostered â€Å"atmosphere of religious intolerance† that has led to violence against religious minorities. In Pakistan, 97 percent of the population is Muslim; the rest is made up mostly of Christians but also of Hindus, Buddhists and other groups. Partly at the prodding of concerned American Christian groups, the U. S. Congress earlier this month passed legislation requiring the president to take action against nations that engage in a pattern of religious persecution. In the 1980s, the United States gave Pakistan billions of dollars for economic development. But in recent years, concern that Pakistan was developing a nuclear bomb has prompted sanctions, slashing aid to the millions of dollars, most of it for humanitarian, food and counter narcotics efforts. Pakistan’s decision to test nuclear weapons in – May – further cooled US – Pakistan relations. Pakistan’s pattern of religious persecution, documented for years in State Department reports, could lead to further sanctions. This is not the only case, there are still many stories but the need here is not just to highlight the stories but also to make sure these stories end up with the mess they have already poured in our Islamic society. Restoration often becomes a matter of restitution or war reparations. In cases where clear acts of injustice have taken place, some type of compensation package can help to meet the material and emotional needs of victims and remedy the injustice. Repentance can also help to re-establish relationships among the conflicting parties and help them to move toward reconciliation. In some cases, conflicts can end more peacefully when parties acknowledge their guilt and apologize than when formal war crimes adjudication or criminal proceedings are used. In cases of civil war, because the line between offenders and victims can become blurred, a central goal of peace building is to restore the community as a whole. Restoration often becomes tied to the transformation of the relationship between the conflicting parties. However, such restoration cannot take place unless it is supported by wider social conditions and unless the larger community makes restorative processes available. Many note that an adequate response to injustice must involve social structural changes, reconstruction programs to help communities ravaged by conflict, democratization and the creation of institutions of civil society. Only then can the underlying causes of injustice be remedied. Summing up my thesis I would only add that by setting examples of injustice we are actually creating fear in the society to fight for their basic rights. This fear is one of the major causes of our poor economy and this is the vital reason, why we are left behind from other countries. BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1)http://www. beyondintractability. org/essay/address_in justice/ 2)http://www. spectrezine. org/global/Bello. htm 3)Pakistan, G. (2003). Accelerating Economic Growth and Reducing Poverty: The Road Ahead. Islamabad: Government of Pakistan. 4)http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Global_justice 5)http://www. injusticefilm. co. uk/impactofinjustice. htm 1 6)http://www. himalmag. com/2006/may/analysis_3. html 7)http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Justice 8)http://www. pakistanchristianpost. com/newsviewsdetail s. php? newsid=255 9)http://www. wisdomquotes. com/cat_conscience. html 10)http: //prague. usembassy. gov/060117__mlk. html 11)http://www. equalitynow. org/english/urgent/urgent_muk htaranmai en. html How to cite Injustice Anywhere, Papers